So, I made some progress today.
I've tested it on another core (which I designed myself) and there the LEDs were running with the stock-firmware. No changes were needed. So I pick&placed 3 1/3 boards today.
What I still don't get why it doesn't work on a core with a discovery-board. Both ran the same firmware...
But I ran into another problem. In my first test I set WS2812_NUM_LEDS to 140. I compiled the firmware and flashed it. It was running fine except that LED 139 and 140 were flickering. Not sure if this is a sign of RAM-overload or if it was power-related. well... I don't think it's power-related though because they were also flickering if only they were turned on and all other LEDs off.
Next I tried to set WS2812_NUM_LEDS to 300. I compiled and flashed the firmware. Result: The core doesn't boot anymore. Since my own core doesn't have a user-button I have to reflash the bootloader through SWD. I don't have time the next days to try it. But I wanted to give you an update on this.
And here is a short video of my p&p-machine... it wass running slow because it was a first test.
https://www.dropbox.com/s/89zfhdda1sc2f45/VID_20190510_151248.mp4?dl=0
By the way: I left out the filter-caps because I normally don't work with 0603 parts and though don't have them in my workshop and don't have them in my machine. Should be okay for the prototypes.